Week 6: What do audiences do with media?

Historically, there has been much debate surrounding audience activity and audience consumption of media. New concepts such as the ‘Prosumer’ are being put forward, whilst theories such as the ‘Hypodermic needle’ are being labelled as ‘outdated’. In this week’s lecture we discussed media audiences and what audiences do with media.

In the lecture we also the Uses and Gratifications theory which although was proposed by Blumler and Katz in 1974, it still seems relevant today. In particular, the idea that audiences use media for personal identity and also personal relationships, corresponds with Mary Gillespie’s study which is discussed in the key reading.

The key reading looks at audience responses to the Australian soap opera ‘Neighbours’ and examines why such a white-casted show set in Australia evidently appeal to a variety of subcultures and groups in Britain. Especially those who are not culturally parallel to them such as British Asians.Brown (1987:22) found that one of the key pleasures women found in ‘soap talk’ is the validation of their own kind of talk. It is this validation that generates prevalent ‘small talk’ and ‘soap gossip’ amongst female friendships, which essentially strengthens their bond, this fulfils the ‘Personal relationship’ aspect of the Uses and Gratifications theory.

Field work on ‘Soap talk’ found very little gender distinction between male and female soap talks. It is presumed this is due to characters of both sexes in the show, providing audiences with characters to identify with.

In my acquired reading The Use of Media Entertainment and Emotional Gratification(2010) it is suggested that media can serve social relationship functions on a variety of levels: as media can be used to connect with, or escape from real-life relationships, and can also be used to form parasocial relationships with media characters and celebrities. Such claims support the Uses and Gratifications theory.

For my own research I would look at why reality television shows Love and Hip Hop and Keeping up With the Kardashians are proving so popular with audiences, especially young women aged 18-24 who are their main demographic. Is it because of the reasons mentioned in the uses and gratifications theory?

References:Gillespie, Marie (2003) “Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change” IN Will Brooker and Deborah Jermyn (eds.) The Audience Studies Reader. London: RoutledgeBartsch, A. and Viehoff, R. (2010) ‘The use of media entertainment and emotional gratification’, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, pp. 2247–2255. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.444.

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Week 5: Representation: Ideology, Discourse and Power

This week we have explored the concept of discourse in the lecture and related readings. Discourses can be defined as the kinds of language we use to talk about something, and the assumptions that lie behind what we think, say and do” (Long and Wall, 2012:363).
Although discourse is linked to knowledge and power, key theorist Foucault insisted on moving away from Marxist ideas of uncovering ‘naturalised ideas’ and aspiring for an equal world. Instead Foucalt wanted to explore ‘regimes of truth’ which are dominant discourses and knowledge we believe to be ‘objective’ but actually have been instilled in society, such as perceptions of sexuality.  Optimistically, Foucault claimed that ‘where there is power, there is always “resistance” (Long & Wall, pp365)

Contrarily, Machin and Mayr’s “How to do a critical discourse analysis” defines discourse as being a language in real contexts of use such as political, cultural and social stances. “In other words, discourse operates above the level of grammar” (Machin and Mayr, 2012:20). However, both Long and Wall and Machin and Mayr do suggest comparable definitions of what discourse includes as both indicate an importance of language and communication.

Faye Davis’ discourse analysis of The L Word explores how the programme constructed and represented ‘acceptable’ types of sexuality and identity, through visual and verbal forms of communication. For example, Davis claims that the programme suggests issues with bisexuality, which is portrayed in The L Word as transitory (193). However, homosexuality appears to be more socially accepted.  Fuelling ideas of what sexual behaviour and practices can be considered as acceptable and normal, e.g: Bisexual people are non-committal or greedy. (Warner, 2013). This conforms to Foucault’s ‘regimes of truth’ as Faye claims that only the bisexual characters struggle with their identities in the programme, whereas none of the lesbian characters encounter identity issues (Davis, pp180).

In terms of my own research related to film and television I thought it might be interesting to explore the discourses around trust and authority in the show crime watch. In such programmes the Police officers are considered pursuers of justice, who are equipped with bravery in order to come face to face with malicious criminal but also empathy to protect victims of crime.

ReferencesDavies, F. (2008) ‘Paradigmatically Oppositional Representations in The L Word’ INLong, P and Wall, T (2012) Media Studies: Texts, Production, Context (2^nd Edition), London: Pearson.

Machin, D and Mayr, A (2012) How to do a Critical Discourse Analysis, London: Sage. pp 1-29

Week 4: Censorship, effects, and moral panics: what do the media do to people?

The lecture outlined the concepts of moral panics and media effects and explored the relationship between moral panics, media effects and media regulation. The key readings discussed censorship and regulations in film and television and how such processes may be beneficial or restricting for the public.

The notion for film and TV censorship and regulations emerged in attempt to protect and audiences from viewing behaviour deemed inappropriate and reflect the standards of morality generally held in society, Nelmes, J (1999).

In the reading, Nelmes, J (1999) explores both negative and positive perceptions of regulation and censorship. Censorship and regulation can be deemed beneficial for society as it can limit the portrayal of destructive behaviour reaching the general public, especially those more socially vulnerable. Several behavioural studies suggest that depiction of violence shapes social behaviour, especially in young people. (Bandura, 1961)

From a pessimistic view, film censorship imposes standards determined by the gatekeepers of society on the general public Nelmes, J (1999), thus the idea of what is morally wrong or right is merely subjective and those without power do not have a say.

Despite the substantial research which suggests violence in film leads to violent behaviour in real life (Jowett et al) , such claims are agued to follow the hypodermic needle which is deemed outdated (Fromm, 2015.p.g:40) as you cannot prove that media consumption has a direct effect on people’s social behaviour. (Boss, 1998)

Regardless of there being no explicit link between violence in film and violent behaviour in real life, the media continues to reinforce this ideology. For example, the British Press linked the murder of toddler Jamie Bulger by two other children to the fact that one of the murderers had been exposed to the violent film Child’s Play 3 before they committed the murder (Long and Wall, 2009). This essentially led to a ‘moral panic’, (Cohen,1972) as the public believed that societal interests were threatened and that exposing their young children to violent behaviour would essentially shape them to frenzied deviants.

The tragic case of Jamie Bulger is also discussed in 'Are we insane?' by Julie Petley (2012) which  I acquired for my found reading. Using the moral panic theory (1972), the  article  attempts to analyse the events which led to the enactment of state video censorship in the UK in 1984.  It also explores the roles politicians and activists such as Mary Whitehouse who aided in creating a panic, labelling them as 'Moral entrepreneurs'. However,the article does suggest that the national press played a major role in amplifying the panic and fueled public ideas that 'Video Nasties' were a threat to to society.

In terms of my own research related to film and television I thought it might be interesting to explore whether audiences believe that censorship and regulation is essential to protect the welfare of society. I would carry this out by distributing open-ended questionnaires to a target sample, asking about their opinions on British film certificates.

References:

Boss, J.A. (1998) Analyzing moral issues. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co ,U.S

Cohen, S. (1987) Folk devils and moral panics: The creation of the Mods and rockers. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Critcher, C., Hughes, J., Petley, J. and Rohloff, A. (2013) Moral panics in the contemporary world. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.

Fromm, M. (2015) Ethics and digital citizenship. United States: Rosen Young Adult.

Long, P.V. and Wall, T. (2009) Media studies: Texts, production, and contexts. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman.

Nelmes, J (1999) An Introduction to Film Studies, 2^nd Edition, London: Routledge. pp. 48-53

Petley, J. (2012) ‘“Are we insane ?”. The “Video Nasty” moral panic’, Recherches sociologiques et anthropologiques, (43-1), pp. 35–57. doi: 10.4000/rsa.839..

Week 3: Is TV/Film a language?

This week we have explored the concept of Film and TV language in the lecture and related readings. In the key readings for this week it suggests that the idea of Cinema/Film being a language is perhaps not appropriate, at best films use verbal language to communicate with audiences and mise-en-scene is used as an effect. (Gledhill and Williams, 2000)

The lecture and readings also explored distinctions between TV and Film. It is argued that TV is consumed casually, as opposed to cinema which is consumed concentratedly.TV is often not the primary concern or is a last resort ,e.g: “What’s on the TV today?” Thus the audience’s concentration is often limited. Rather than watch, TV audiences will often look and glance. However, films in cinemas are watched attentively, as they are often the main priority. Especially, due to the conventional layout of most cinemas. Cinema audiences are surrounded by not only darkness, but the identities of fellow viewers are often anonymous and there is a lack of movement. This set up differs dramatically from the domestic surrounding of TV (Masterman, 1985)

However, the lecture discussed whether such theories were outdated. As they were proposed in the 1980’s. Recently television shows like True Detective and Breaking Bad acknowledged as being more cinematic in form and style. Materman’s ideas also does not consider when producers and directors extend into other mediums. For example, Steven Spielberg has directed the film Hook (1991) and produced the animated television series Toonsylvania (1998). Additionally, Netflix makes original 30 minute comedies and hour long quality dramas and films, meaning the distinction between films and television is becoming less apparent. Hollywood films are also becoming more and more serialised, for example the Fast and Furious series requires an understanding of the wider story  and having seen the other franchise films in order to fully appreciate the narrative in one supposed stand-alone film. Such recent developments in the TV and film industry, counter Masterman’s theory.

In terms of own research I would investigate whether audience’s attitudes still differ in regards to the consumption of television and the consumption of films. Are films still the primary concern to audiences and are television series’ a last resort? I would explore this by distributing open-ended questionnaires to a target sample, asking about the way they watch films and television series’.

References

Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (2000) ‘How films mean, or, from aesthetics to semiotics and half-way back again’ in Gledhill, C and Williams, L. (2000),Reinventing Film Studies. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Gledhill, C. and Williams, L. (eds.) (2000) Reinventing film studies. New York: Co-published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press.

Week 2: The Political Economy of Film and Television: Production and Consumption

This week we have explored the concept of political economy and public sphere in the lecture and related readings and discussed the relationship between political economy, public sphere and power.

 In the key readings for this week the  political economy of media is considered as ‘historically the approach has been concerned with exploring the relationship between the range of meanings available in the media and the underpinning economic interests and ownership patterns across the different media spheres’ – TV, Film, Radio ect. (Long, 2012: 173).

During the lecture the status of audiences was also discussed. Are audiences media consumers or citizens? Media Studies: Texts, Production, Context by Long and Wall explores both perspectives as the US has a predominantly full-fledged commercial system which tends to see audiences as consumers and has capitalist priorities which include the use of making programmes for profit and the use of television channels for advertising. As Jay Blulmer claims (1986:1) ‘the overriding profit-maximising goal’ will essentially mean that audiences are deemed as consumers before citizens. However, Public Broadcasting Services which is the main broadcasting system in Western Europe can be described as a ‘paternal system’ Williams (1976:131) as it has a self-proclaimed duty to serve the public by reforming, educating and informing the audience as well as entertaining them. Thus, seeing audiences as citizens as opposed to consumers. However, it appears that both systems see audiences as something to be controlled through messages transmitted in media products.

The key reading also discusses the role of the media as a public sphere as it enables individuals to discuss and argue opinions in the interests of the greater social good and also allows a collective opinion to be formed.  However, the reading that I acquired highlights how this may be problematic as the presupposed common good is prioritised over and above the interests of particular individuals (Feintuch and Varry, 2006, van Culenburg and McQuail, 2003). This is an issue as using pragmatic ends to secure social stability diminishes the moral and humane concerns for the development of marginalised citizens. For example, such broadcasting philosophies will surely conflict with the concept of freedom of speech. This is problematical as there are many cases where the right to freedom of speech has aided in the enhancement of society. For example, initially the evolutionary theory coined by Charles Darwin was considered extreme as it the opposed the existing beliefs which were driven by religious beliefs.

Such points are highlighted Chin's (2002) article ‘Public service broadcasting, public interest and individual rights in china’ which I accquired for my found reading. This article argues that China's public service broadcasting (PSB) policy has been driven by the pragmatic desire of ensuring social stability as opposed to prioritising moral concerns for the wellbeing of Chinese citizens.

If I was to do my own research, I would explore whether audiences feel that Public Broadcasting Services such as the BBC, fulfil their responsibilities of both educating and informing audiences. I would carry this out by distributing open-ended questionnaires to a target sample. In terms of triangulation I would also hold a focus group and make them watch a number of programmes displayed on the BBC and prompt a discussion on their thoughts and opinions by asking non-leading questions.

References

Chapter 2 ("Audience-as-market and audience-as-public") in Ang, Ien (1991) Desperately Seeking the Audience. London: Routledge

Chin, Y.C. (2012) ‘Public service broadcasting, public interest and individual rights in china’, Media, Culture & Society, 34(7), pp. 898–912. doi: 10.1177/0163443712452700

Long, P and Wall, T (2012) Media Studies: Texts, Production, Context (2^nd Edition), London: Pearson.

Week 1: Television and Public Service Broadcasting: Industry, Institution and History

The lecture and key readings discussed the historiography of UK Television and Public Service Broadcasting: the BBC's broadcasting monopoly is also discussed. Historiography is defined as ‘the writing of history based on analysis, original source material and the use of these in a narrative.’ Long P and Wall T (2012: 454)

The British Public Broadcasting service emerged as an attempt to avoid adapting the American broadcasting system in a post-war era where American influence was prominent, as Britain heavily depended on America despite being considered a 'great power'. The American Broadcasting system was considered "chaotic and commercialised (Creeber, 2003: 22)

The BBC obtained revenue from licence fees and the BBC is often described as being initially a paternal system. (Williams:131) as it's philosophies consisted of educating and reforming the public. However, such duties were determined by those in power. Therefore social and political views of the elite determined the content and ethos of the BBC. Gill Branston claims John Reith's concept of public service broadcasting was really just the "exclusion from decision-making processes of social classes other than his own". Reith often reinforced the idea of "national interest" yet his style for broadcasting was very exclusive.

The BBC's prioritisation for informing and reforming audiences, left an empty space for a commercial broadcasting system in the UK.  In 1955

The Independent Television  (ITV) launched, this was the first official introduction of commercial broadcasting in Britain. ITV was successful in areas where the BBC was insufficient, for example the use of commercials gave ITV an insight of audience opinion. As audiences tolerating commercials indicated audience satisfaction for the programming.

The success of ITV had commenced a rivalry with BBC, causing the BBC to ponder their interactions and inclusiveness of their audiences. The rivalry between the two broadcasting services is said to “have produced some of the best television in the world”.

Such proclamations are explored in SPREADING WISDOM which I acquired as my found reading. The article explore accusations that the BBC was unprepared for competition and was hesitant to offer popular programming like its commercial rival ITV. (Mundy, 2008)

References:

Creeber, Glen (2003) The Origins of Public Service Broadcasting (British Television Before the War) in Michele Hilmes (ed.) (2003) The Television History Book. London: BFI. Pp.22-26

Long, P and Wall, T (2012) ‘Media Histories’ IN Media Studies: Texts, Production, Context (2nd Edition), London: Pearson. pp 448 – 481

 

Mundy, J. (2008) ‘SPREADING WISDOM’, Media History, 14(1), pp. 53–71. doi: 10.1080/13688800701880416